Mathematics Web-Based Learning for Malaysian Secondary Schools in Geometry Free Essays

Ace RESEARCH PROPOSAL Prepared by Yeo Lian Ming 1. Title : Mathematics Web-Based Learning For Malaysian Secondary Schools In Geometry 2. Section 1 Introduction Background Of The Problem Learning of geometry is officially presented in the Malaysian essential science educational plan. We will compose a custom paper test on Science Web-Based Learning for Malaysian Secondary Schools in Geometry or then again any comparable theme just for you Request Now The accentuation in geometry increments as understudies progress to optional training, where around 40% of the sixty points in the five-year auxiliary science educational program includes geometry content (Malaysian Ministry of Education, 1998). It is fundamental that understudies toward the starting degree of optional training are furnished with legitimate thinking abilities to expand on in this way increasingly thorough encounters of formal geometry. The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM,2000), and other significant writing in the territory of science training call for accentuation in geometry at all levels. Geometry is a binding together topic to the whole science educational program and as such is a rich wellspring of representation for arithmetical, mathematical , and factual ideas. For instance, geometric districts and shapes are helpful for improvement work with the importance of fragmentary numbers, proportionate portions, requesting of divisions, and registering of parts (Sanders, 1998, p. 20). In any case, geometric ideas are frequently disregarded in rudimentary and center level schools for showing computational abilities ( Huetinck Munshin, 2004 ; Noraini Idris, 2006 ). Different reasons identified with scientific framework itself, curricular materials, instructional practice, and subjective advancement have been proposed to clarify students’ the challenges with geometry. In numerous Malaysian schools, the instructing and learning of arithmetic has been accounted for to be too instructor focused and that the understudies are not given enough chances to build up their own reasoning (Malaysian Ministry of Education, 2001). This circumstance constantly brings about understudies turning out to be aloof collectors of data, which much of the time don't brings about applied comprehension. Numerous understudies can't fathom what their science instructors educate particularly on the subject of geometry since arithmetic substance is educated with the aim of completing the schedule and getting ready for assessments. Little respect is given to how well the understudies comprehend geometrical ideas. On the subject of geometry, understudies experience challenges in applying what they have realized because of spatial powerlessness and perception issues. In optional school, arithmetic teacher’s greatest test is to discover a path how to get students’ enthusiasm to learn geometry. Through electronic learning, educator can give understudies another and invigorating approach to learn and rehearse arithmetic when and where it is appropriate for them. The utilization of PCs in instruction can be used as another innovative help for the perception of conceptual ideas through PC created virtual portrayals, taking into consideration the age of mental model of the geometrical ideas. In addition, the utilization of the World Wide Web as an instructive conveyance medium has pushed the constraints of instructional plan. It is getting typical for understudies to enroll for programs, get to course materials, impart and submit assignments, and recover reviews electronically. Study halls and meeting offices in schools the world over are web-accommodating, with many contribution video-conferencing or full virtual study hall offices. In any case, the genuine inquiry is this: does web-innovation help or ruin learning? The most appropriate answer is by all accounts that it relies upon the circumstance. In some cases it makes a difference. Now and then it blocks. On the in addition to side, the Internet has pushed the board training forward by empowering quick, simple access to instruction and data, shared workspace devices for coordinated effort, moment correspondence and informing, and online assistance. On the negative side, the nature of learning, as a general rule, neglects to meet desires. Proclamation Of The Problem Teaching and learning process in arithmetic especially in the subject of geometry isn't a simple undertaking. Understudies will in general fall flat in building up a satisfactory comprehension of the ideas, thinking, and critical thinking aptitudes. The absence of comprehension in learning geometry frequently cause demoralization among the understudies, which constantly will prompts horrible showing in open assessment. Various elements have been advanced to clarify why learning geometry is troublesome because of geometry language, representation capacities, and insufficient guidance. Poor thinking aptitudes are additionally another region of worry among auxiliary school understudies. Many can't remove important data from given information and a lot more can't decipher answers and make ends. Customary methodologies in learning geometry underscored more on how much the understudies can recall and less on how well the understudies can play out the procedure of critical thinking that incorporates higher request numerical reasoning aptitudes and thinking. Subsequently learning gets constrained and makes tension among understudies and only here and there carries fulfillment to the understudies. Targets Of The Study This examination will investigate the ICT capacity, for example, the online instructional articles as learning visual guides for the educating and learning process in Geometry. This expertise will upgrade the instructing and learning process in conveying the themes in Geometry. The investigation will address a portion of the essential issues that ought to be remembered for the educational plan configuration procedure to build up an additionally intriguing learning experience that genuinely connects with the understudies from a psychological point of view, while empowering or cultivating a more noteworthy achievement in the student’s learning advancement especially the perception capacity and critical thinking abilities. Extent Of The Study This investigation centers around the educational program structure of online instructional articles for the instructing learning process that includes hands-on capacity with accentuation on experiential model. From the experiential point of view, the objective is to give a chance or occasion that will connect with or include the understudy in the dynamic procedure of learning. Experiential online learning can happen when the accompanying conditions are met during the structure stage: a )the suitable degree of psychological as well as full of feeling area is reached, making the understudy do substantially more than just get the learning or information, ( b )the connection between the sort of information builds up a suggested degree of understudy contribution, ( c )the results are assessed as for the space (subjective and additionally emotional) as far as the kind of information. When these means are incorporated during the structure procedure, as opposed to as a b it of hindsight, electronic learning will get more extravagant, and give the understudy a bona fide learning occasion. Essentialness Of The Study In planning instructional articles, accentuation ought to be put on structures that are helpful for important adapting instead of plans that point just at introduction of items. This investigation will look at the joining of innovation, substance, teaching method and online conveyance as it influences the understudy learning experience. The procedure and model for making intelligent rich learning conditions is introduced to improve their course advancement rehearses and online study hall quality. . Section 2 Literature Review The use of instructional items in the educating and learning of arithmetic helped the understudies to comprehend the topic all the more unmistakably through novel introduction; making the learning of science intriguing and fun just as more clear (Clarke ; Gronn, 2004). The shrewd utilization of electronic innovation can assist with breaking the limits among homeroom and work environment, among hypothesis and practice, and between the j obs of educator and student. A subsequent age approach deliberately planned and broadened, can prompt many win-win arrangements that can advance significant activity based discovering that joins the best in specialized and delicate aptitudes instruction in both study hall and working environment settings (Morgan, G. ; Adams, J. , 2009). In any case, there was a critical collaboration impact between conveyance model and earlier web understanding. This shows for certain students, certain conveyance models might be increasingly ffective for online situations (Ahern, T. ; Martindale, T. , 2001). The consequences of the ongoing investigation indicated that the students who utilized the crossover online learning model showed a superior comprehension of the essential ideas and had the option to apply their learning encounters to genuine settings better than the students who were presented to the conventional showing technique just (Naidoo, N. ; Naidoo, R. , 2006). With the flow groups of exploration and information on improvement both of the student, and the educator, there is a need now like never before to reevaluate and build up another model for instructional plan. It might be fundamental at that point, to surrender, or maybe essentially adjust, the conventional instructional structure models that were grounded in conduct terms for a model that is increasingly experiential (Kolb, 1984). 4. Part 3 Research Methodology Research Design ; Procedure Using programs that can be downloaded from the web, for example, Moodle an Open Source Course Management System (CMS), an intelligent course materials containing on the web exercises, for example, self evaluations, movements, and reenactments on the themes in geometry can be created to build up an e-learning sites to energize self-learning and capacity to look for information from different sources. These can improve learning and are regularly increasingly agreeable , adaptable learning time and important for understudies. Operational Framework This examination will receive semi trial des

Gwendolyn Brooks and Edwin Arlington Robinson Essay

Gwendolyn Brooks and Edwin Arlington Robinson are two out of many fine artists that have composed motivation verse that has affected our nation. Gwendolyn Brooks made progress at an early age. Creeks is most popular for her melodious style of urban verse, for example, the sonnet â€Å"We Real Cool†. Streams was the main African-American author to win the Pulitzer Prize for her verse with the sonnet, â€Å"Annie Allen†. Edwin Arlington Robinson was the main individual ever to get the Pulitzer Prize in 1922. Robinson’s verse didn't catch the consideration of people in general until he was very nearly 50 years of age. President Theodore Roosevelt found a portion of his verse. He was intrigued to such an extent that he offers him a representative situation at the New York Customs House. â€Å"We Real Cool† by Gwendolyn Brooks and â€Å"Richard Cory† by Edwin Arlington Robinson show how the two writers look at/differentiate in their sonnets as it identif y with lamentable consummation in death, the use of first individual plural, and learning message to the peruser. â€Å"We Real Cool† shows how it identifies with terrible consummation in death, the use of first individual plural, and learning message to the peruser. The sonnet identifies with deplorable completion in death. These young people clarify how they participate in exercises, for example, playing pool, drinking, and erring. Despite the fact that they accept they have every other person tricked, they know themselves that the conduct will in the long run lead to death. The sonnet is written in first individual plural. It permits the pool players to represent themselves and not permit the peruser to draw their own suppositions. Likewise â€Å"We Real Cool† sends a learning message to the peruser. The message that Brooks conveys is that what appears to be cool in somebody else’s eye, isn’t cool in another, and it can prompt a dangerous life. â€Å"Richard Cory† shows how it identified with disastrous completion in death, the utilization of first individua l plural, and learning message to the peruser. The sonnets identify with awful consummation in death. Richard Cory is extremely fruitful in the perspective on the companions however in his own self judgment, he is deficient to satisfy his motivation throughout everyday life. So in this way, he ends it all. Also, first individual plural was not utilized in the sonnet. The town individuals are talking about how they see Richard Cory. They don't have the foggiest idea about his own battles and just observe the human side that he appears. They appreciate him and are very desirous of him. Thirdly, in the sonnet of â€Å"Richard Cory†, is communicating something specific that you can't pass judgment flippantly. Because somebody seems cheerful and affluent doesn't imply that they are genuinely content with their ways of life. What one may see might be a reference to the eye. Moreover, an individual must become more acquainted with an individual to comprehend the perspectives and considerations. Taking everything into account, â€Å"We Real Cool† by Gwendolyn Brooks and â€Å"Richard Cory† by Edwin Arlington Robinson showing how the two writers analyze/differentiate in their sonnets as it identify with deplorable closure in death, the use of first individual plural, and learning message to the peruser. We saw that â€Å"Richard Cory† is straight forward, direct and has a lot of depictions not at all like the sonnet â€Å"We Real Cool†, that requires the peruser to utilize their creative mind. In any case, the two sonnets rhyme. The two sonnets discusses the importance’s of instruction of how the upsides of remaining in school can get you far or how it can obstruct your life. Despite the fact that the two creators were conceived in various time, the two of them share similar battles and disservices.

DBQ- Reform, Democratic ideals essays

DBQ-Reform, Democratic standards articles 1825-1850 was a period of significant change in training, wrongdoing anticipation, servitude, religion, womens rights, industrialization, and open tutoring, every one of the a piece of the revivalistic development. These sought to extend majority rule beliefs, as these developments reflected freedom, fairness and the quest for joy, which all lies in the American affirmation of autonomy. Wrongdoing avoidance was a change during this period, severe and brutal disciplines were decreased, insignificant violations and disciplines, for example, being obligation were nearly disposed of as workers entered state administrators. As of now they had a plan to rebuff as well as change hoodlums, along these lines receiving the prison framework referenced in Document A. Not exclusively did they tried to forestall future wrongdoings by searching out the young and unprotected. This record contains signs of good and strict ramifications. Identifying with report E though the young had been industrialized and taught with ethics. This identifies with the quest for joy which subsequently identifies with law based standards. The record discusses difficult work and an ethical kid this reflects instruction changes around then that underscored improved training as well as stressed on ethics and logic, which McGuffey lectured. Balance writing was likewise broadly appeared around then. Report H is an incredible case of this, which delineates the social and monetary expenses of drinking. As of now, drinking too much was an issue since it diminished proficient workers, which in this manner decreased persevering people into thoughtless lushes, which conflicted with revivalistic standards. Subsequently the endeavor to decrease liquor admission reflected equitable standards as it improved the lives of people and the people families, in this manner advancing the quest for bliss. Changes additionally stressed on stable persevering families which is unmistakably appeared in Documents E,C and H. Archive E discusses hardwo... <!

How to Choose Writing Research Proposal

How to Choose Writing Research Proposal The requirements and period of a research proposal may vary widely based on the area and institution you're applying to. Keep in mind, you're not setting out to conduct research to be able to prove a point. Even now, in the fields of company and science, it's still true that you have to earn project proposals. It's possible to use a research proposal example to aid in designing your own template. Academic performance is quite an intriguing topic for the analysis and there are lots of techniques which could help 1 measure his performance. Since there are lots of procedures for conducting research, you will need to clarify your research tactics. Define the reach of the undertaking and any theoretical approaches you'll use. What you're trying to explain and why, along with some feeling of the assortment of variation in the dependent variable. For the majority of our research degrees and professional doctorates you'll be asked to submit a research proposal as a portion of your application, if you don't have been advised otherwise. If you're applying for research programme, you might be asked to submit a research proposal as a portion of your application. You may verify proposal deadlines and in the event the research you're interested in pursuing is acceptable. For working on a top quality dissertation, student should pick a topic that's pertinent to their academic and professional interests. Clearly recognize the critical sources you mean to use and explain how they are going to lead to your analysis of the topic. By now you ought to be acquainted with a couple of the mutual styles like APA or MLA. In every research proposal it's advised to use a particular manner of writing and structure and in the current article we're likely to cover all the characteristics of the APA research proposal and the way to compose a proposal. Introduction Explain the issue you're examining and why it's significant. Methodology Scientific work has to be based on logical conclusions and the sole means to have consistent and accurate data is via proper technique. Paper Writing Service Overview In addition to supplying custom research paper writing services, we provide solutions to a wide selection of writing requirements for our clientele. You've got an outstanding idea your company would benefit from, but there's just a single problem. Our professional writing service delivers the finest academic papers inside your deadline. Each customer will receive a non-plagiarized paper with timely shipping. Because you're choosing a writer, you may use the spare time to study. The one which you want to write may be more complex based on your field of study. UnderstandingA whatA the reader may wish to hear is crucial. With our customized essay offer, you can be guaranteed to get any kind of essay help you're looking for. When writing your discussion, remember that you want to get excited about what you aspire to accomplish and have confidence your project will be helpful to the reader. The aim of the proposal is so it is possible to sway project funders to supply you with the monies necessary to finish the essential research. For example, it explains how you will finish your project and includes all the activities that will take place. You won't possibly be in a position to complete such an undertaking. Ok, I Think I Understand Writing Research Proposal, Now Tell Me About Writing Research Proposal! If it's possible, the title should still be under 15 words. If you have to shorten your title, pick the keywords. The title ought to be on another page and set besides the remainder of the template. You will need to have a title that's absent of acronyms or abbreviations.

How Real Is The Threat Of In Our Country - 2376 Words

Brittany Hixson Research Methods Agroterrorism Research Paper Professor Keith April 26, 2015 How real is the threat of Agroterrorism in our country? September 11th, 2001, changed the way our entire country carries out their day to day functions. Everyone who is old enough to remember that specific day remembers what they were doing when they were told the Twin Towers fell. Americans remember their emotions as they held on to their families and friends and prayed for the brave men and women, firefighters, police officers, EMTs and volunteers who risked their lives to help the trapped business personnel inside the collapsing towers. September 11th opened our hearts as a nation and opened our awareness to the conclusion that†¦show more content†¦PPD-21 recognizes sixteen critical infrastructures; including the Food and Agriculture Sector, the Chemical Sector, Healthcare and Public Health Sector, Transportation Systems Sector, and Water and Wastewater Systems Sector. As these sectors have been looked at more and more by agronomists, scientists, and other government officials they are all still wondering why or how no one ha s tried to attack us through our crops or our livestock. Agroterrorism is defined by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as â€Å"the deliberate introduction of an animal or plant disease for the purpose of generating fear, causing economic losses, or undermining social stability.† (Threats 2013) Of course even though it was not profoundly considered looked upon until after September 11th, that does not mean Agroterrorism is a new notion. One of the earliest acknowledged terrorist attacks related to agriculture was during the 6th century B.C. The Assyrians poisoned their enemy’s wells with rye ergot. German agents infected cattle during World War I that spread from the Atlantic to France. In 1994, more than seven hundred and fifty people fell ill when a cult intentionally contaminated ten salad bars with salmonella. (Threats 2013). The first step into understanding Agroterrorism is to realize who would want to harm our livestock and crops. Next is knowing what they would gain from damaging our agriculture system. Our largest

The War on Drugs a Losing Battle - 1626 Words

In 1968, when American soldiers came home from the Vietnam war addicted to heroin, President Richard Nixon initiated the War on Drugs. More than a decade later, President Ronald Reagan launches the South Florida Drug Task force, headed by then Vice-President George Bush, in response to the city of Miami’s demand for help. In 1981, Miami was the financial and import central for cocaine and Marijuana. Thanks to the task force, drug arrests went up by 27%, and drug seizures went up by 50%. With that, the need for prosecutors and judges also rose which helped boost our economy (Thirty Years of America’s Drug War). Despite these increased arrests and seizures, marijuana and cocaine still poured into south Florida. At this stage, the root of the†¦show more content†¦On January 1st, Colorado made history by becoming the first American state were marijuana can be purchased for recreational purposes, and in which marijuana is regulated from the seed to the actual sale o f the product (Marijuana Legalization Will Hurt Mexican Cartels, but How Much?). As attitudes in America begin to shift in favor of outright legalization, it increasingly seems possible that more and more states, and eventually the rest of the country might follow. Given the nature of the illegal drug businesses, this might make illegal drug trafficking a commodity. At times, the Office of National Drug Policy has said that as much as 60% of cartel profits come from the production and sale of marijuana. On the other hand, a 2010 RAND study (International Programs and Drug Policy Research Center) estimated the percentage to be between 15 and 26 percent. More recently, research by the Mexican Institute of Competitiveness released in October 2012 suggests that if only Washington, Colorado and Oregon legalized marijuana, than cartel profits would fall as much as 30 percent. Another variable which must be taken into account when analyzing the impact of legalization on the cartels is the nature of the organizations themselves. All of Mexicos criminal groups have a range of diverse business interests aside from marijuana, and most are considered poly-drug organizations, which make huge profits from methamphetamine, cocaine andShow MoreRelatedShould Marijuana Be Legalized?939 Words   |  4 PagesThe American people have been watching Reefer Madness since 1936 while reading the foreword: â€Å"Marihuana is that drug - a violent narcotic - an unspeakable scourge - The Real Public Enemy Number One!† Many Americans still believe that marijuana is a highly addictive and life threatening drug. 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Standardization of Herbal Medicines free essay sample

Herbal medicine is the most primitive traditional approach to the treatment of diseases and ailments. It is called herbal medicine because it involves the use of plants or plant parts. There is no doubt that herbal medicines provided the first basis for therapeutics before the development or advent of orthodox medicine. Despite the fact that, over the years, chemists have synthesized a large number of chemical substances, many of which have proved useful in modern therapeutics, plants still remain potential sources of useful products. Although the medicine prescribed may contain only one single active item, it is often a mixture of many components. Thousands of herbal medicines are used by peoples from every culture and various indigenous medicines are gradually being introduced into modern therapeutics. In developing countries about 80% of the people, especially the rural population, rely on traditional medical remedies for their health care needs. In developed countries, there has been a resurgence of interest in herbal medicines due, to a large extent, on the preference of many consumers for products of natural origin. In addition, manufactured herbal medicines from their countries of origin often follow in the wake of migrants from countries where traditional medicines play an important role. It is important however, to distinguish between herbal medicine supplied by a â€Å"qualified† medical practitioner as a result of a consultation and those herbal remedies (in the form of â€Å"teas†) freely available to the public for self-medication. DEFINITION: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), herbal medicines should be regarded as â€Å"finished, labelled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients aerial or underground parts of plants or other plant materials or combinations thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations. Plant material includes juices, gums, fatty oils, essential oils and any other substances of this nature. Herbal medicines may contain excipients in addition to the active ingredients. In some countries, herbal medicines may also contain, by tradition, natural organic or inorganic active ingredients which are not of plant origin. Medicines containing plant materials combined with chemically defined active substances including chemically defined isolated constituents of plants are not considered to be herbal medicines†. Problems associated with herbal medicines: One of the major criticisms levelled against herbal medicines is that they are neither standardized nor are they dispensed to patients in specified doses or in strictly regulated quantities. However it is becoming increasingly clear that the standardization of herbal medicine entails much more than just specifying the amount of the medicine to be taken by the patient. It is also important that every stage of the production process should be standardized. Prior to the current availability of mass- marketed herbal medicines and dietary supplements, herbalists and patients prepared their own herbal medicines. Often the herbal ingredients were grown and obtained locally and compounded by hand into a particular formula or concocted into a simple infusion or decoction. Each product was therefore a unique formulation (because different individuals of the same plant species, grown in different soils, at different times of the year, harvested on different days and even stored in different ways, will all contain different amounts of the active medicinal substance). onsequently, doses and effects were acceptable even if variable and inconsistent. However, the pharmaceutical industry cannot function as big business if it has to tailor- make drugs for localities and small groups of people. Numerous herbal products are now grown worldwide and are distributed internationally. Although many ethical manufacturers are currently producing high quality products that are based on careful identification and assays for impurities, it is often difficult to determine which brands and products meet even basic quality standards. This is because standardization practices, if at all in place, can vary considerably between manufacturers. It is usual to find that different marketed brands may vary substantially not only in the quality and quantity of active herbal medicines but also in the absolute or relative concentrations of the chemical constituents in the different products. Laboratory analyses of different brands of herbal medicines show that: important constituents may vary by 5-, 10-, or even 40- fold. Some contain no labelled products at all. There have been reports of substitution or contamination of the declared ingredient with toxic herbs that may be dangerous; presence of environmental pollutants (pesticides, toxic metals, microorganisms etc) and adulteration with drug products. It is also reasonable to assume that, as with pharmaceutical drugs, misrepresentation in herbal preparation marketing may increase in the coming years unless vigorous efforts are made to check such unwholesome practices. Prospects: The art and science of herbal medicine has become more sophisticated. As herbal medicines become increasingly packaged and advertised to compete with pharmaceutical drugs, consumers and healthcare providers equally expect them to meet comparable quality standards. Standardization of herbal medicines: Simply put, it means the process of recommending a set of pharmacognostic , chemical, biological and pharmaceutical standards adequately controllable, which could form an official monograph or part thereof for a proposed plant drug preparation. Standards for herbal medicines, either when used as a single constituent or in combination, should include identity, quality and purity, to ensure, as far as possible, uniformity in physical properties and active constituents and provide all other information regarding the distinguishing characteristics. Since it is easier to standardize a single component than a multi-component herbal medicine, the best approach for standardization is to provide preliminary standards for all the individual plant components at crude drug level. Thereafter, those standards that are not significantly affected by the mixture technology can be applied to the standardization of the finished products. Moreover, a multi-component herbal medicine whose individual plant components have undergone standardization at crude drug level can be further standardized as a finished herbal medicine using the general mixture characteristics such as chromatographic fingerprinting in a given chromatographic system or a general colour of spectrophotometric profile. PHARMACOGNOSTIC STANDARDIZATION: Fortunately all crude botanicals can be subjected to a pharmacognostical evaluation/ examination involving authentication, freedom from impurities, simple extractive tests and general quality control before they are extracted. This done and within the limits of variations due to chemical races, ontogeny and geographical source, all preparations made from different consignements, by sound manufacturing methods, should be generally acceptable and of uniform quality. The botanical information on the crude plant material should be comprehensive enough to eliminate the risk of preparing sub-standard or adulterated drugs. The information should give full details about: Identity: A formal description should give details of botanical name, family and authentication by a qualified taxonomist; a comprehensive description of the plant/ plant part used, the date of collection, harvesting and post harvest treatment, data from field investigations, ethnobotanical studies, the most essential characteristics of the plant components including organoleptic, macroscopical and microscopical (both qualitative and quantitative) characters. It is advisable that a voucher specimen representing each lot of the plant material which has been processed should be appropriately kept and assigned a voucher number. Information on moisture content, solubility, acidity of water extract, soluble and insoluble extractive values, ash values, limit tests to determine foreign matter, impurities and microbial counts, marker compounds and results of some definite qualitative tests should also be provided. CHEMICAL STANDARDIZATION: This standardization implies that the preparation contains a designated amount or percentage of the therapeutically active component . However standardization of specific active constituents within herbal medicines, unlike that of drug products with a single chemical entity, is complex and unreliable. Herbal medicins may contain hundreds of bioactive chemicals and the contributions of individual compounds responsible for the overall therapeutic activity are usually unknown since additive and synergistic activity of the constituents may be required for effectiveness. Therefore in the case of herbal medicines, although standardization of chemical components may be used to assist batch-batch replicability, the process fails to provide reliable controls for pharmacological activity. Nonetheless, the ultimate goal is to identify and characterize the structures of the pharmacologically active constituents including absolute and relative percentage concentrations, their detection, and solubility etc. Usually a method of the identification and assay of the plant material and, if possible, quantification of the finished product should be prepared. PHARMACEUTICAL STANDARDIZATION: Galenicals must be prepared by following standard procedures such as maceration, percolation, decoction etc. There is need to standardize the amount of extract or active component in the finished product (tablet, capsule, pill etc) to ensure that each batch of the formulation complies with the composition stipulated. BIOLOGICAL/PHARMACOLOGICAL STANDARDIZATION:Fortunately many of the plants used in herbal medicine contain principles whose effects can be demonstrated pharmacologically and the action of the whole plant extract can usually be related to that of the isolated constituents. However, for most herbal medicines, it is not possible to demonstrate or evaluate their pharmacological activity and the situation is compounded by the frequent use of a number of ingredients in combination whose active constituents have not been elucidated. In such instances, there is no means of assessing therapeutic activity except by the use of a biological assay whenever and wherever feasible. Extensive pharmacological studies should be carried out on all fractions to determine possible side-effects. Where there are no existing laboratory models for a particular disease, a suitable model should be developed. MICROBIOLOGICAL STANDARDIZATION:Herbal medicines intended for antimicrobial use should be subjected to standard antimicrobial protocols for the specified disease. For other herbal medicines, the microbial load should be determined and limits established in accordance with the broad WHO guidelines on purity. TOXICOLOGICAL STANDARDIZATION:A number of cases of toxicity arising from the over-consumption of herbal remedies have been reported, the principal danger arising from the uncontrolled supply and administration of these products. It is therefore advisable to ensure that the product is non-toxic. To establish this fact, tests for chronic and acute toxicity should be carried out on laboratory animals before proceeding to tests on humans according to laid down international procedures for toxicological evaluation. The therapeutic index of the drugs should also be established. CONCLUSION:Currently there are no government regulations that assure manufacturing standards and quality control other than the Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) regulations required for foods. Therefore all procedures for the manufacture and assessment of herbal medicines should comply with this protocol. The in-house operations should be controlled to eliminate errors in manufacturing and check excessive variability which may lead to the production of poor quality herbal products. There should be consistency in the manufacturing process so that variations in the content of identified marker or active constituent will be minimized. This will ensure consistentency in the quality of the herbal product from batch to batch. Physical and chemical stability of the herbal medicine in its final packaging/ container should be tested under defined storage conditions. The shelf-life should be determined. Detailed methods of preparation or manufacture for the particular preparation, including composition or concentration of active substances per unit volume or weight as well as its preservation and stability profile should be included. Consumers should recognize that no government agency currently regulates the production and quality of herbs and should exercise discretion in selecting any herbal medicinal product. Scientific professionals should learn to keep an open mind and accept that, although a substance may lack evidence of efficacy, this does not mean that it is ineffective or that it cannot be useful in any clinician-patient interaction. The herbal industry should police itself and try to eliminate fraudulent or unacceptable marketing. CHEMICAL RACES: The on-going intensive chemical investigations for substances of medicinal value or suitable precursors of therapeutic active substances from plants have revealed that, although some plants exhibit similar phenotypes, they differ in their genotypes and as such are identical in external appearance only but differ in their chemical constituents/composition. Such plants are referred to as chemical races/physiological races/chemical varieties. In a few cases the different chemical races can easily be identified by visual means eg the presence or absence of particular anthocyanin pigments in certain flowers can give rise to coloured or colourless/white forms. In most cases, however, extensive analyses as well as horticultural work over many generations are required to demonstrate conclusively and exclusively that the observed differences are truly genetic in nature and not merely due to diurnal, seasonal and/or environmental variations. The existence of chemical races has been demonstrated in the following: 1. Species of Duboisia : They contain the tropane alkaloids hyoscine, hyoscyamine,nor-hyoscyamine etc but the proportion of any one alkaloid in the total alkaloid mixture may vary greatly due to seasonal and environmental factors. On the other hand, it has been found that within a given specie, there may exist various alkaloid types eg nicotine and nor-nicotine have been reported in species of D. yoporoides and D. leichhardti. These observations have led to the conclusion that in this genus two distinct chemical races exist namely: (a) Different alkaloid-types within a specie (b) Different alkaloid-types among hybrid phenotypes. 2. Among the Dryopteris: The presence or absence of phloroglucinol derivatives has been used as the basis for distinguishing chemical variations among species of Dryopteris especially D. spinulosa. 3. Purgative drugs: Although the therapeutic activity of purgative drugs is due to the complex mixture of 1,8-dihydroxy-anthranol derivatives, their glycosides and free anthraquinones, the relative proportions of the mixture components depends not only on time of collection, age of the plant, drying conditions and geographical sources but also on genetic factors. Consequently chemical races have been found which vary for (high- and low- yielding total anthraquinones) and others (in their rhein/chrysophanol ratio). 4. From polymorphous Strophanthus sarmentosus four chemical variations have been identified namely sarmentogenin-, sarmutogenin-, sarverogenin- and low- glycoside producing forms 5. As early as 1830, the release or otherwise of hydrocyanic (prussic) acid by cyanogenetic/cyanophoric glycosides on hydrolysis has been used to separate the sub-families of the Rosaceae. At the species level it could denote varieties or different chemical races of the same species eg Prunus amygdalinus yields both bitter (var. amara) and sweet (var. dulcis) almonds. In conclusion, chemical races can occur in plants either naturally or be brought about by plant breeding techniques. However obtained, they can be used for various purposes 1. Improve the therapeutic value of a drug (either by adjustment of the individual constituents or by increasing the overall yield). 2. Serve as tools in the elucidation of the later stages of the biosynthetic process. 3. Help in chemotaxonomic studies to determine the exact positions taxa should occupy with respect to the taxonomic hierarchy already established by morphological characters.